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Planetary Science - The science of planets around stars-George H. A. Cole

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Book title :Planetary Science - The science of planets around stars
Author : George H. A. Cole

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A REVIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
THE UNITY OF THE UNIVERSE 1

1.1. Cosmic abundance of the chemical elements 1
1.2. Some examples 2
Pro blem 1 4

2 THE SUN AND OTHER STARS 6

2.1. The interstellar medium 6
2.2. Dense cool clouds 6
2.3. Stellar clusters 8
2.4. A scenario for formation of a galactic cluster 10
2.5. Main sequence stars and their evolution 12
2.6. Brown dwarfs 12
2.7. Stellar companions 12
Pro blem 2 15

3 THE PLANETS 16

3.1. An overview of the planets 16
3.2. Orbital motions 16
3.3. Orbits of the planets 19
3.4. Planetary structures-general considerations 21
3.4.1. Planetary magnetic fields 24
Pro blems 3 26

4 THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS 27

4.1. Mercury 27
4.1.1. The surface of Mercury 28
4.1.2. Mercury's magnetic field 31
4.1.3. Mercury summary 31
4.2. Venus 32
4.2.1. The surface of Venus 32
4.2.2. The atmosphere of Venus 35
4.2.3. Venus and magnetism 38
4.2.4. Venus summary 38
4.3 The Earth 38
4.3.1. The shape of the Earth 39
4.3.2. Surface composition and age 39
4.3.3. Changing surface features 41
4.3.4. Surface plate structure 41
4.3.5. Heat flow through the surface 46
4.3.6. Earthquakes 49
4.3.6.1. The crust 51
4.3.6.2. The mantle 52
4.3.6.3. The core 52
4.3.7. The Earth's atmosphere 52
4.3.8. The Earth's magnetic field 53
4.3.9. Earth summary 54
4.4. Mars 54
4.4.1. The surface of Mars 54
4.4.1.1. The highlands 55
4.4.1.2. The plains 57
4.4.1.3. V olcanic regions 58
4.4.1.4. Channels and canyons 60
4.4.2. Consequences of early water 62
4.4.3. Later missions 62
4.4.4. The atmosphere of Mars 65
4.4.5. Magnetism and Mars 66
4.4.6. Mars summary 66
Pro blem 4 67

5 THE MAJOR PLANETS AND PLUTO 68

5.1. Jupiter 68
5.1.1. The internal structure of Jupiter 68
5.1.2. Heat generation in Jupiter 69
5.1.3. The atmosphere of Jupiter 70
5.1.4. Jupiter's magnetic field 72
5.1.5. Jupiter summary 73
5.2. Saturn 74
5.2.1. The internal structure of Saturn 74
5.2.2. Heat generation in Saturn 75
5.2.3. The atmosphere of Saturn 75
5.2.4. Saturn's magnetic field 75
5.2.5. Saturn summary 76
5.3. Uranus 77
5.3.1. The internal structure of Uranus 78
5.3.2. Heat generation in Uranus 78
5.3.3. The atmosphere of Uranus 78
5.3.4. The magnetic field of Uranus
5.3.5. Uranus summary
5.4. Neptune
5.4.1. The internal structure of Neptune
5.4.2. Heat generation in Neptune
5.4.3. The atmosphere of Neptune
5.4.4. Neptune's magnetic field
5.4.5. Neptune summary
5.5. Pluto
5.5.1. Physical characteristics of Pluto
5.5.2. Relationship with Charon
Pro blem 5

6 THE MOON

6.1. The physical characteristics of the Moon
6.1.1. The distance, size and orbit of the Moon
6.2. Earth-Moon interactions
6.2.1. The diurnal tides
6.2.2. The effects of tides on the Earth- Moon system
6.3. Lunar and solar eclipses
6.3.1. Solar eclipses
6.3.2. Eclipses of the Moon
6.4. The lunar surface
6.4.1. The maria
6.4.2. The highlands
6.4.3. Breccias
6.4.4. Regolith: lunar soil
6.5. The interior of the Moon
6.5.1. Gravity measurements
6.5.2. Lunar seismicity
6.5.3. The interior structure of the Moon
6.5.4. Heat flow and temperature measurements
6.6. Lunar magnetism
6.7. Some indications of lunar history
6.8. Moon summary
Pro blems 6

7 SATELLITES AND RINGS

7.1. Types of satellites
7.2. The satellites of Mars
7.3. The satellites of Jupiter
7.3.1. Io
7.3.2. Europa
7.3.3. Ganymede
7.3.4. Callisto
7.3.5. Commensurabilities of the Galilean satellites
7.3.6. The smaller satellites of Jupiter
7.4. The satellites of Saturn 114
7.4.1. Titan and Hyperion 114
7.4.2. Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione and co-orbiting satellites 115
7.4.3. Rhea and Iapetus 117
7.4.4. Phoebe 117
7.4.5. Other small satellites 118
7.5. The satellites of Uranus 118
7.6. The satellites of Neptune 119
7.7. Pluto's satellite 120
7.8. Ring systems 120
7.8.1. The rings of Saturn 120
7.8.2. The rings of Uranus 122
7.8.3. The rings of Jupiter 122
7.8.4. The rings of Neptune 123
7.9. General observations 123
Pro blem 7 123
8 ASTEROIDS 124
8.1. General characteristics 124
8.2. Types of asteroid orbits 126
8.3. The distribution of asteroid orbits-Kirkwood gaps 127
8.4. The compositions and possible origins of asteroids 128
Pro blem 8 131

9 COMETS 132

9.1. Types of comet orbit 132
9.2. The physical structure of comets 135
9.3. The Oort cloud 139
9.4. The Kuiper belt 142
Pro blems 9 143

10 METEORITES 144

10.1. Introduction 144
10.2. Stony meteorites 148
10.2.1. The systematics of chondri tic meteorites 148
10.2.2. Achondrites 151
10.3. Stony irons 153
10.4. Iron meteorites 155
10.5. The ages of meteorites 159
10.6. Isotopic anomalies in meteorites 159
10.6.1. Oxygen in meteorites 159
10.6.2. Magnesium in meteorites 160
10.6.3. Neon in meteorites 162
10.6.4. Other isotopic anomalies 163
Problems 10 163

11 DUST IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM 164

11.1. Meteor showers 164
11.2. Zodiacal light and gegenschein 166
11.3. Radiation pressure and the Poynting- Robertson effect 166
Problem 11 167

12 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 168

12.1. The coarse structure of the Solar System 168
12.2. The distribution of angular momentum 168
12.3. Other features of the Solar System 169
12.4. The Laplace nebula theory 170
12.4.1. Objections and difficulties 170
12.5. The Jeans tidal theory 171
12.5.1. Objections and difficulties 172
12.6. The Solar Nebula Theory 172
12.6.1. The transfer of angular momentum 173
12.6.2. The formation of planets 173
12.6.2.1. Settling of dust into the mean plane 174
12.6.2.2. Formation of planetesimals 174
12.6.2.3. Planets and cores from planetesimals 174
12.6.2.4. Gaseous envelopes 174
12.6.3. General comments 174
12.7. The capture theory 175
12.7.1. The basic scenario of the capture theory 175
12.7.2. Modelling the basic capture theory 175
12.7.3. Planetary orbits and satellites 176
12.7.4. General Comments 176
12.8. Ideas on the evolution of the Solar System 178
12.8.1. Precession of elliptical orbits 178
12.8.2. Near interactions between protoplanets 179
12.9. A planetary collision 179
12.9.1. The Earth and Venus 179
12.9.2. Asteroids, comets and meteorites 181
12.10. The origin of the Moon 181
12.10.1. Darwin's fission hypothesis 181
12.10.2. Co-accretion of the Earth and the Moon 182
12.10.3. Capture of the Moon 182
12.10.4. A single impact theory 183
12.10.5. Capture in a collision scenario 183
12.11. Other bodies in the Solar System 185
12.11.1. Mars and Mercury 185
12.11.2. Neptune, Triton, Pluto and Charon 185
12.12. Isotopic anomalies in meteorites 187
12.13. General comments on a planetary collision 189
Problem 12 189

A. Basic mneralogy

A.1. Types of rocks
A.2. Types of minerals 191
A.2.1. Silicates 192
A.2.2. Carbonates 193
A.2.3. Oxides 193
A.2.4. Other minerals 194
A.3. Rock composition and formation 194
A.3.1. Igneous rocks 194
A.3.2. Sedimentary rocks 196
A.3.3. Metamorphic rocks 198
A.3.3.1. Thermal metamorphism 199
A.3.3.2. Pressure metamorphism 199
A.3.3.3. Regional metamorphism 200
Pro blems A 200

B GEOCHRONOLOGY - RADIOACTIVE DATING 202

B.1. Comments on atomic structure 202
B.1.1. Nuclear structure 202
B.1.2. The emissions 203
B.2. The laws governing radioactive decay 204
B.2.1. The physical principles 204
B.2.2. A simple age measurement 205
B.2.3. Decay in a radioactive chain 205
B.2.4. Bifurcated decay 206
B.2.5. Age determination: the closure temperature 206
B.2.6. The isochron diagram 208
B.2.6.1. Rubidium ---+ strontium 208
B.2.6.2. Samarium ---+ neodymium 210
B.2.6.3. Rhenium ---+ osmium: lutetium ---+ hafnium 210
B.2.6.4. Uranium ---+ lead 210
B.2.6.5. Thorium ---+ lead 211
B.2.6.6. Potassium ---+ argon 211
B.2.7. The concordant diagram 211
B.3. Using nuclear reactors 213
B.3.1. Argon-argon dating 213
B.3.2. Fission-track dating 214
Pro blems B 215

C THE VIRIAL THEOREM 216

Pro blems C 217

D THE JEANS CRITICAL MASS 218

D.1. An application of the Virial Theorem 218
D.2. From condensations to condensed bodies 220
Pro blem D 221
E FREE- FALL COLLAPSE 222
Pro blem E 224

F THE EVOLUTION OF PROTOST ARS 225

F.1. The Hertzsprung- Russell diagram 225
F.2. The evolution of a protostar 227
Pro blems F 229

G THE EQUILIBRIUM OF STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE 230

G.1. Conditions for modelling a main-sequence star 230
G.2. The pressure gradient 231
G.3. The included-mass gradient 232
G.4. The luminosity gradient 232
G.5. The temperature gradient 232
G.6. Making models of stars 234
Pro blem G 234

H ENERGY PRODUCTION IN STARS 235

H.1. Proton-proton (p-p) reactions-a classical view 235
H.2. A quantum-mechanical description 236
H.2.1. The distribution of proton relative energies 237
H.2.2. The rate of making close approaches 238
H.2.3. The tunnelling probability 238
H.2.4. The cross-section factor 239
H.2.5. The energy generation function 239
H.3. Nuclear reaction chains in the Sun 240
Problem H 242

I EVOLUTION OF STARS AWAY FROM THE MAIN SEQUENCE 243

1.1. An overview of the evolutionary path 243
1.2. Hydrogen-shell burning 245
1.3. Helium ignition and helium core burning 246
I.4. Hydrogen and helium shell burning 247
1.5. The evolution of higher mass stars 248
1.6. Final comments 250
Problem I 250

J THE CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT, NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES 251

J.1. Some basic quantum mechanics principles 251
J.2. Degeneracy and white dwarf stars 251
J.3. Relativistic considerations 253
J.4. Neutron stars and black holes 254
Problems J 255

K PLANETS AROUND OTHER STARS 256

K.l. Planets around neutron stars 256
K.2. Effects of companions on the central star 256
K.3. Finding the speed and mass of the planet 257
K.4. The preliminary results of observations 260
K.4.1. Mass distributions 260
K.4.2. Characteristics of orbits 262
K.5. The constitution of the companions Atmospheres
K.6. Possibilities of conditions for life
K.7. A final comment
K.8. Pro blem K

L SOLAR-SYSTEM STUDIES TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY 265

L.1. Views of the ancient world 265
L.2. Nicolaus Copernicus 268
L.3. Tycho Brahe 268
L.4. Johannes Kepler 269
L.4.1. Kepler's determination of orbital shapes 270
L.5. Galileo Galilei 273
Problems L 275

M NEWTON, KEPLER'S LAWS AND SOLAR-SYSTEM DYNAMICS 276

M.1. Isaac Newton, Kepler and the inverse-square law 276
M.2. General orbits 277
M.3. Kepler's laws from the inverse-square-law force 279
M.4. Establishing a Solar-System distance scale 281
M.5. The dynamics of elliptical orbits 281
M.6. Some special orbital situations 284
M.6.1. Parabolic paths of projectiles 284
M.6.2. Transfer orbits between planets 286
Problems M 287

N THE FORMATION OF COMMENSURATE ORBITS 288

o THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE EARTH 293

0.1. A simple isothermal atmosphere 293
0.2. The structure of the Earth's atmosphere 296
0.2.1. The variation of temperature with height 296
0.2.2. The upper reaches of the atmosphere 297
0.2.2.1. The exosphere 297
0.2.2.2. The thermosphere 301
0.2.2.3. The homopause 301
0.2.3. The lower reaches of the atmosphere 301
0.2.3.1. The mesosphere 301
0.2.3.2. The stratosphere and troposphere 302
0.3. The dynamics of the atmosphere 304
Pro blems 0 306

P THE PHYSICS OF PLANETARY INTERIORS 307

P.1. Introduction 307
P.2. Applying the Virial Theorem 307
P.3. The energies involved
P.3.1. The kinetic (degeneracy) energy
P.3.2. The electrostatic energy
P.3.3. The gravitational energy
P.3.4. The energies combined
P.4. Maximum radius
P.5. Conditions within a planet of maximum radius and mass
P.6. Specifying a planet: the planetary body
P.7. The minimum mass for a planetary body
P.7.1. The rigidity of a solid body
P.8. The internal structure of a planetary body
P.8.1. The crust
P.8.2. The maximum height of surface elevations
P.8.3. Hydrostatic equilibrium
P.8.4. Mantle and core
P.8.5. Variation of pressure and density with depth
P.8.6. Specifying K
Pro blems P

Q THE TRANSFER OF HEAT

Q.1. Conduction of heat in a solid
Q.1.1. The equation of heat conduction in a solid
Q.2. Comments on the description of fluid flows
Q.2.1. The fluid parameters
Q.2.2. The dimensionless parameters
Q.2.3. Physical interpretation: rearrangements
Pro blems Q

R SEISMOLOGY-THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

R.I. The behaviour of planetary material for an impulsive release of energy
R.1.1. Waves without a boundary
R.1.2. Waves near a boundary surface
R.1.3. Full-body waves
R.2. Attenuation of seismic waves
R.3. Seismometers and seismographs
R.3.1. Travel times and seismic speeds
R.3.2. Reflection and refraction across a boundary
R.4. Seismic tomography
R.5. Long-term hydrostatic equilibrium of planetary material
R.6. The Adams-Williamson method using earthquake data
R. 7. Moment of inertia considerations
Pro blem R

S MOMENTS OF INERTIA

S.1. The moment of inertia of a uniform sphere about a diameter
S.2. The moment of inertia of a spherically symmetric distribution
S.3. The moment of inertia of a spheroid about the symmetry axis
Pro blem S

T THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A DISTORTED PLANET 339

T.1. The gravitational potential of a spinning planet 339
Pro blems T 340

U PRECESSION OF THE EARTH'S SPIN AXIS 341

U1. The basic mechanism 341
U2. The simple configuration 342
Pro blem U 343

V INTRINSIC PLANETARY MAGNETISM 345

V.1. Magnetic poles 345
V.2. Magnetic elements: isomagnetic charts 346
V.3. The form of the field 347
V.4. Analysing the field 351
V.5. The result for the Earth 352
V.5.1. The dipole approximation 353
V.5.2. The non-dipole component of the magnetic field 353

V.6. Time dependencies of the magnetic field 355

V.6.1. The dipole field 355
V.6.2. The non-dipole secular field-the secular variation 356
V.6.3. Reversals of the direction of magnetization 358
V.6.4. Pole wander 358
V.6.5. Sea floor spreading 359

V.7. Magnetism of other Solar-System planets 361

V.8. Intrinsic magnetism of non-solar planets 363

Pro blem V 363

W MAGNETIC INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PLANET AND STAR 364

W.1. Transient magnetic components 364
W.2. The origin of the atmospheric fields 366
W.3. The solar wind 367
W.4. Coupling between plasma streams and magnetic fields 369
W.5. Effects of the solar wind 371
W.5.1. The effect on the Earth's field 371
W.5.2. The trapped particles 373
W.5.3. Whistlers 373
W.5.4. The plasma tail 373

W.6. The magnetospheres of other planets 375

W.6.1. The major planets 375
W.6.2. Examples of other planetary bodies 377

W.7. Motion through the interstellar medium 379

W.8. Companions to other stars 379

Pro blem W 379

X PLANETARY ALBEDOES 380

X.l. The brightness of Solar-System bodies seen from Earth 380
X.2. The equilibrium temperature of the planets 381
Pro blems X 382

Y THE PHYSICS OF TIDES

y.1. The basics of the tide-raising mechanism
Y.2. Spring tides and neap tides
Y.3. The recession of the Moon from the Earth
Y.4. The magnitude of the mid-ocean tide
Y.4.1. Oscillations of fluid spheres
Pro blems Y

Z DARWIN'S THEORY OF LUNAR ORIGIN

AA THE ROCHE LIMIT AND SATELLITE DISRUPTION

AA.1. The Roche limit for fluid bodies
AA.2. The Roche limit for a solid body
AA.3. The disruption of a solid satellite
AA.4. The sphere of influence
Pro blems AA

AB TIDAL HEATING OF IO

AB.1. Elastic hysteresis and Q values
AB.2. Tidal stressing in Io
Pro blems AB

AC THE RAM PRESSURE OF A GAS STREAM

Problem AC

D THE TROJAN ASTEROIDS

Pro blem AD

AE HEATING BY ACCRETION 411

AE.1. Models for the accretion of planets and satellites 411
AE.2. Accretion without melting 411
AE.3. Accretion with melting 412
AE.4. A more realistic initial thermal profile 414
Problem AE 415

AF PERTURBATIONS OF THE OORT CLOUD 416

AF.1. Stellar perturbations 416
AF.2. Perturbations by giant molecular clouds 419
AF.3. Perturbations by the galactic tidal field 420
AF.4. Conclusion 422
Problem AF 423

AG RADIATION PRESSURE AND THE POYNTING-ROBERTSON EFFECT 424

AG.1. The force due to radiation pressure 424
AG.2. The Poynting-Robertson effect 424
Problem AG 425

AH ANALYSES ASSOCIATED WITH THE JEANS TIDAL THEORY 426

AH.l. The tidal distortion and disruption of a star 426
AH.2. The break-up of a filament and the formation of protoplanets 428
Problem AH 429

AI THE VISCOUS-DISK MECHANISM FOR THE TRANSFER OF ANGULAR
MOMENTUM 430

Problem AI 431

AJ MAGNETIC BRAKING OF THE SPINNING SUN 432

AJ.1. Coupling of particles to field lines 432
AJ.1.1. The form of the magnetic field 432
AJ.1.2. The present rate of loss of angular momentum 433
AJ.2. The early Sun 434
Problem AJ 435

AK THE SAFRONOV THEORY OF PLANET FORMATION 436

AK.1. Planetesimal formation 436
AK.2. Planets from planetesimals 437
Problem AK 439

AL THE EDDINGTON ACCRETION MECHANISM

AL.1. The accretion cross section
Pro blem AL

AM LIFE ON A HOSPITABLE PLANET

AM.1. We are here
AM.2. Early life on Earth
AM.3. Chemical composition
AM.4. General properties
AM.5. Instability due to radiation: role of an atmosphere
AM.6. Stability of the surface region
AM.7. How many planets might carry advanced life? The Drake equation
AM.8. Conclusion

AN THE ROLE OF SPACE VEHICLES

AO PLANETARY ATMOSPHERIC WARMING

AP MIGRATION OF PLANETARY ORBITS

AP.1. Deflection in a hyperbolic orbit
AP.2. Motion in an infinite uniform planar medium
AP.3. Resistance for a highly elliptical orbit
AP.4. Resistance for a circular orbit
Pro blem AP

AQ INTERACTIONS IN AN EMBEDDED CLUSTER

AQ.1. The initial conditions

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

Contents XVll

AQ.2. Conditions for an interaction
AQ.3. Numerical calculations
Problem AQ

APPENDIX I

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

REFERENCES

INDEX

Thursday, July 7, 2011

Planetary Science - The science of planets around stars-George H. A. Cole eBook download

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